3.3 Typical activities leading to NORM concentration

Radioactive residues are found not only in fuel cycle activities, but also in a range of other industrial activities, namely:

• Mining and milling of metalliferous and non-metallic ores
• Production of coal, oil and gas
• Extraction and purification of water, for example for the generation of geothermal energy, as drinking and industrial process water, and in paper and pulp manufacture
• Production of industrial minerals, including phosphate, clay and building materials
• Use of radionuclides, such as thorium, for properties other than their radioactivity

Naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM) may be present in these activities and may lead to exposures at some stage of the processes and in the use or reuse of products, residues or wastes.

Understanding these activities and processes is the basis for understanding the waste forms produced, related modes of disposal, and thus the potential for contamination situations that can lead to enhanced public exposure